Islam and Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, founded by the prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) in ancient Persia and traced to approximately the 2nd millennium BCE. At the time of Islam's emergence in 7th-century Arabia, the Zoroastrian Sasanian Empire was the dominant superpower on Islam's eastern frontier. Persian culture, language, and religious concepts were deeply embedded in the region's intellectual life.
The parallels between Islamic and Zoroastrian belief and practice are extraordinarily specific — extending from the number and timing of daily prayers to the minute details of ritual purification, the structure of the afterlife, the form of angelic hierarchies, and the precise contours of eschatological narratives. Many of these parallels were documented by early Muslim scholars themselves. This page presents them systematically, allowing the reader to assess the evidence directly.
The Divine: God, Angels, and Cosmic Duality
The Concept of God — Tawhid and Ahura Mazda as Monotheistic Frameworks
Allah is singular (tawhid), eternal, and uncreated. In hadith, Allah is described in anthropomorphic terms — possessing two hands, two eyes, a face, and a shin; seated on a throne (arsh) above the seven heavens. He is the sole object of worship, creator of all things, and ruler of the Day of Judgment.
Ahura Mazda ("Wise Lord") is the one supreme deity, uncreated, the source of all truth and light. He is described as possessing wisdom, power, and holiness as distinct divine attributes. He is the sole object of worship, creator of all existence, and the arbiter of the final judgment.
Both say there is only one God — unlike the polytheists around them. Islamic hadith describe Allah with human-like features (hands, eyes, a throne). Zoroastrian texts describe Ahura Mazda the same way — as a divine king who speaks, acts, and judges. In both: an all-powerful creator who judges the dead, is the only one worshipped, and sits in the highest heaven.
The Names of God — 99 Names of Allah vs 101 Names of Ahura Mazda
The 99 Names of Allah (Asma ul-Husna — "the most beautiful names") are a canonical list of divine attributes mentioned in the Quran and hadith. Quran 7:180 commands believers to call upon Allah by these names. Memorising and reciting them is considered an act of worship with spiritual merit.
The 101 Names of Ahura Mazda (Hordad Yasht and the Doa Nam Setayesh prayer) are a canonical enumeration of divine attributes and titles. Reciting the names of Ahura Mazda is an established Zoroastrian devotional practice, believed to confer protection and spiritual merit on the worshipper.
Listing God's names is found in Zoroastrian texts from centuries before Islam. One has 99 names, the other 101 — the numbers are close, but the idea is the same: a fixed list of God's titles that people recite for spiritual reward. No other major religion at the time had this practice.
Angels and Divine Helpers — Islamic Malaika vs Zoroastrian Yazatas
Malaika (angels) are winged spiritual beings created from light, who carry out Allah's commands without question. They include named archangels (Jibril/Gabriel, Mikhail/Michael, Israfil, Azrael) as well as countless lesser angels. They record human deeds, carry divine revelation, guard the righteous, and will blow the trumpet at the end of time.
Yazatas ("worthy of worship") are divine beings created by Ahura Mazda to maintain the cosmic order and protect creation against the forces of Ahriman. They include the six Amesha Spentas (archangels: Vohu Manah, Asha Vahishta, Khshathra Vairya, Spenta Armaiti, Haurvatat, Ameretat) and countless lesser Yazatas assigned to protect nature, time, and righteousness.
Both have a top level of named archangels with important jobs, plus many lesser angels. In both, angels always obey God and serve creation. The archangels in each faith have matching roles: one brings revelation, one handles death, and some guard paradise.
Battle Between Good and Evil — Allah/Iblis vs Ahura Mazda/Ahriman
Iblis (Satan/the Devil) refused Allah's command to bow before Adam and was cast out of heaven. He was granted respite until the Day of Judgment to lead humans astray. He commands an army of shayateen (demons). The cosmic history is a war between the forces of Allah and those of Iblis, culminating in the final defeat of evil at the Day of Judgment.
Ahriman (Angra Mainyu, "Destructive Spirit") is the supreme evil being who chose the path of the lie from the beginning of creation. He leads an army of Daeva (demons) against Ahura Mazda's creation. The entire cosmic history is a struggle between the Truth (Asha) and the Lie (Druj), which will end with Ahriman's final defeat and the renovation of the world (Frashokereti).
The pattern is the same in both: the devil was once one of God's creations who rebelled. He is allowed to lead demons and tempt humans for a while, but will be defeated for good at the end of time. The Zoroastrian end-times story lines up closely with the Islamic Day of Judgment: judgment happens, evil is destroyed, the dead come back to life, and God's order rules forever.
This way of thinking — a single evil being who opposes God, leads demons, and will be beaten — comes from Zoroastrianism. It was not found in the polytheism of pre-Islamic Arabia or in early Judaism and Christianity in the region.
Prayer and Ritual Practice
The Call to Prayer — Adhan and the Zoroastrian Bell for Five Daily Summons
Five times daily, a muezzin issues the adhan (call to prayer) from the minaret of a mosque, summoning Muslims to congregational prayer. The adhan uses specific Arabic phrases in a fixed sequence and is among the most distinctive sounds of Islamic practice.
Five times daily, a bell is rung in the Atash Behram (fire temple) or Agiary to summon Zoroastrian devotees to prayer. The ringing marks the transition from one Geh (prayer period) to the next, just as the adhan marks the entry of each Islamic prayer time.
Both use a public call five times a day to gather people for prayer. One uses a human voice, the other a bell — but the number and the purpose are exactly the same.
Five Daily Prayers and Their Timings — Islamic Salat vs Zoroastrian Geh
Muslims are obligated to perform five daily prayers (salat/namaz): Fajr, Zuhr, Asr, Maghrib, and Isha. According to Islamic tradition, the specific number five was commanded by Allah directly to Muhammad during the Night Journey and Ascension (Isra wal-Miraj), starting at fifty prayers and being reduced to five through intercession.
Zoroastrians are obligated to perform five daily Geh prayers (Havan, Rapithwan, Uzerin, Aiwisruthrem, Ushahin). According to Zoroastrian tradition, the correct five-Geh structure was revealed to Arda Viraz by Ahura Mazda during Viraz's celestial journey — a journey in which Viraz visited the heavens and hells to confirm which religious practices were correct.
| Islamic Prayer | Islamic Time | Zoroastrian Geh | Geh Time |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fajr | From true dawn until just before sunrise | Havan | Begins 36 minutes before sunrise |
| Zuhr | Just after noon (solar zenith) until mid-afternoon | Rapithwan | 12:33 PM to 3:00 PM |
| Asr | Late afternoon until just before sunset | Uzerin | 3:33 PM to sunset |
| Maghrib | Just after sunset until the red twilight disappears (some schools: until midnight) | Aiwisruthrem | 72 minutes after sunset until midnight |
| Isha | Around nightfall; ends at dawn | Ushahin | Midnight to 36 minutes before sunrise |
The match is not just in the number five — it is in the order, the times of day, and the origin story: both were revealed to a prophet during a journey through heaven (see The Celestial Journey). Zoroastrian Geh prayers are many centuries older than Islam. In the Islamic story, Muhammad was told to pray 50 times a day, then talked it down to five — the same type of story found in the Zoroastrian Arda Viraz Namag.
Note on the word namaz: The word used for Islamic prayer in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu is namaz — a Persian word used in Zoroastrianism for centuries before Islam. Both salat (Arabic) and namaz (Persian) are used for Islamic prayer across Persian-influenced cultures.
Following the Movement of the Sun — Solar Timings for Islamic and Zoroastrian Prayers
Islamic prayer times are determined precisely by the position of the sun. Dawn prayer (Fajr) begins at nautical dawn; noon prayer (Zuhr) begins at solar zenith; afternoon prayer (Asr) is calculated by shadow length; sunset prayer (Maghrib) begins immediately at sunset; night prayer (Isha) at astronomical twilight. The sun defines all five intervals.
Zoroastrian Geh prayer times are equally solar. The five Gehs divide the day according to the sun's position: Havan covers pre-dawn through sunrise; Rapithwan covers midday; Uzerin covers afternoon; Aiwisruthrem covers evening and night; Ushahin covers midnight through pre-dawn. The sun is a sacred symbol of Ahura Mazda, and aligning prayer to its movement has deep theological significance.
Both use the sun to set prayer times. In Zoroastrianism, the sun itself is a divine being. Islam prohibits praying exactly at sunrise, noon, and sunset to avoid looking like sun-worship — which actually confirms that the prayer schedule follows the same solar pattern as the Zoroastrian system.
Ritual Purification Before Prayer — Islamic Wudu/Ghusl vs Zoroastrian Padyab/Nahn
Before prayer, Muslims must be in a state of ritual purity. Minor ritual impurity requires wudu (ablution): washing hands, rinsing mouth and nose, washing the face, washing arms to the elbows, wiping the head, and washing the feet to the ankles. Major ritual impurity (after sexual intercourse, menstruation, etc.) requires ghusl — a full ritual bath of the entire body with specific sequence and intention.
Before prayer, Zoroastrians must be in a state of ritual purity. Minor ritual impurity requires padyab: washing of the hands and face with water in a specific sequence before tying the sacred kusti cord and commencing prayer. Major ritual impurity (after contact with the dead, childbirth, menstruation, etc.) requires nahn — a full ritual bath with specific sequence, prayers, and sacred bull's urine (nirang) in the traditional rite.
Both have the same two-level system: a quick wash for minor impurity and a full bath for major impurity. The things that require washing are the same (sex, menstruation, contact with death). The body parts washed in wudu (face, hands, arms, head, feet) are very similar to the Zoroastrian padyab. Both faiths devote major attention to these rules in their holy texts.
Head Covering During Prayer — Taqiyah/Topi Required in Both Traditions
Islamic tradition requires or strongly recommends covering the head during prayer. Men typically wear a taqiyah (kufi cap); women must cover the head (and hair) as part of the prayer dress requirement. Praying with an uncovered head is considered makruh (disliked) or impermissible in many schools.
Zoroastrian practice requires covering the head during prayer for both men and women. Men wear a small topi (cap); women cover their head with a scarf or veil. The head covering is considered mandatory — praying with an uncovered head is an act of disrespect before Ahura Mazda and is religiously prohibited.
Both require both men and women to cover their heads during prayer. This is different from Judaism (mainly men) and early Christianity (mainly women). In both Zoroastrianism and Islam, the rule applies equally to both sexes.
Facing a Sacred Direction During Prayer — Qiblah vs Sacred Fire
During prayer, Muslims face the Kaaba in Mecca, the direction known as the qiblah. Mosques mark the qiblah with a wall niche (mihrab). The obligation to face the qiblah is non-negotiable; prayers performed facing the wrong direction without excuse are invalid. The Kaaba contains the Black Stone and is understood as the axis of the world and the house of God.
During prayer, Zoroastrians face a central blazing fire — the sacred flame kept perpetually burning in the fire temple (Atash Behram). The fire represents the divine grace of Ahura Mazda and the cosmic principle of truth (Asha). Prayers must be directed toward the visible fire, which functions as both sacred centre and directional focus of worship.
Both require facing a sacred focal point during prayer: Muslims face the Kaaba (God's house), Zoroastrians face a sacred fire (God's presence). The Quran itself mentions God speaking "from the fire" in the story of Moses. The earliest Muslims prayed toward Jerusalem before Mecca, suggesting the direction concept was still being developed.
Reciting Scripture in Its Original Language — Arabic in Islam, Avestan in Zoroastrianism
Islamic prayer requires recitation of Quranic passages in Arabic. A translation into another language does not fulfil the obligation of salat — even for worshippers who do not speak or understand Arabic. The Fatiha (opening chapter) must be recited in Arabic in every rak'a (unit of prayer) as a mandatory pillar of the prayer.
Zoroastrian prayer requires recitation of Avestan texts (the Gathas and Yashts) in the Avestan language — an extinct language that the vast majority of Zoroastrian worshippers have not spoken for centuries. Recitation in a vernacular translation does not fulfil the devotional obligation. The sacred language is itself considered spiritually potent beyond its semantic meaning.
Both require prayer in the original sacred language, even if the worshipper does not understand it. Most religions prefer prayer that people can understand, but in Islam and Zoroastrianism, the exact sounds of the words are considered sacred on their own.
Daily Supplications for Life's Occasions — Islamic Duas vs Zoroastrian Nirangs
Islamic tradition prescribes specific duas (supplications) for virtually every action of daily life: waking, sleeping, eating, drinking, entering and leaving the bathroom, dressing, entering and exiting the home and mosque, travelling, rain, thunder, entering a new month, and so on. These are recorded in collections such as Hisnul Muslim (Fortress of the Muslim) and are memorised in Arabic.
Zoroastrian tradition prescribes specific nirangs and short prayers (afrinagans) for the same range of daily actions: waking, sleeping, eating, cutting nails and hair, using the bathroom, dressing, entering a new room, undertaking journeys. These are recorded in prayer manuals and recited in Avestan. The Khordeh Avesta (the "small Avesta") is precisely such a compendium of daily prayers.
Both have short, set prayers for everyday actions: waking up, eating, using the bathroom, dressing, travelling, and many more. These prayers are in the sacred language and are memorised from childhood. The idea is the same — every part of daily life becomes an act of worship.
The Celestial Journey
The Ascension to Heaven — Islamic Miraj vs Zoroastrian Arda Viraz
Isra wal-Miraj (Quran 17:1, 53:1–18): Muhammad is transported overnight from Mecca to Jerusalem on a celestial steed (Buraq), then ascends through seven layers of heaven, meeting earlier prophets (Adam, Jesus, Joseph, Idris, Aaron, Moses, Abraham) stationed at successive levels. He is received in the presence of Allah, receives the command to pray fifty times daily, and — through Moses's advice and repeated intercession — negotiates it down to five. He is shown paradise and hell on his journey.
Arda Viraz Namag ("Book of the Righteous Viraz"): The pious man Viraz is chosen by the Zoroastrian community to make a spiritual journey to confirm correct religious practice. After being given a sacred drink (haoma wine mixed with milk), he falls into a deep sleep and his soul ascends through the heavens, guided by the archangel Sraosha and the Yazata Adar. He meets the souls of the righteous and learns the rewards of heaven; he is then shown the torments of hell in vivid detail. He returns and reports the findings — specifically confirming the correct number and form of the five daily prayers.
The two stories match in many small details:
- One righteous man is chosen for the journey.
- He leaves the physical world (night travel / induced sleep).
- He ascends through multiple heavens.
- An angel guides him the whole way.
- He meets earlier holy people at each level.
- He sees both paradise and the tortures of hell.
- The main point of the journey is to confirm the five daily prayers.
- He returns to tell people what he saw.
The Zoroastrian Arda Viraz Namag was written in Middle Persian texts that predate Islam. It represents centuries of Zoroastrian tradition about heavenly journeys. Early Muslim scholars knew about this parallel; some noted it without drawing the same conclusions modern scholars do.
There are also historical problems. The Quran says Muhammad was taken to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the Farthest Mosque) in Jerusalem — but no mosque existed there in 621–622 CE. The first al-Aqsa mosque was built by Caliph Umar sixteen years later on land described as a rubbish heap (Al-Tabari, Vol. 12). The Dome of the Rock — where later tradition says Muhammad ascended to heaven — was not built until 691 CE. A story borrowed from Zoroastrian tradition and set in Jerusalem would naturally get the details of Jerusalem wrong.
Early accounts confirm scepticism. Muhammad's own cousin Umm Hani bint Abi Talib begged him not to tell people about the journey. Ibn Ishaq records that many Muslims left Islam after hearing the story. For the contradiction between seeing God in the Miraj and Quran verses saying no one can see God, see the Contradictions page.
Afterlife and Eschatology
The Word "Paradise" — Al-Firdaus Borrowed from Avestan Pairidaeza
The Quran uses two primary words for the afterlife abode of the righteous: al-Jannah (the Garden) and al-Firdaus (the highest garden/paradise). The latter appears in Quran 18:107 and 23:11 as the supreme level of paradise. Arabic lacks the phoneme /p/, so the Persian word Pirdaus became Firdaus in Quranic Arabic — a direct borrowing.
The word "paradise" derives from the Avestan pairidaeza — meaning a walled enclosure or royal garden. It passed into Old Persian as pairi-daeza, into Middle Persian (Pahlavi) as Pirdaus, into Greek as paradeisos (from which English gets "paradise"), into Arabic as Firdaus, and later into all Islamic languages. The concept of a walled garden of abundance as the afterlife reward is Zoroastrian in origin.
This is a proven language borrowing. The Quranic word Firdaus comes directly from the Persian/Avestan word Pirdaus/pairidaeza. Arabic does not have a /p/ sound, so it became /f/. This is one of many Persian and Aramaic loanwords in the Quran, showing the cultural world of 7th-century Arabia. The same word was already used in Greek as paradeisos before Islam.
Heaven and Hell — Jannah/Jahannam and Garō-nmāna/Druj-ō-dəmāna
Islamic heaven (Jannah) is a physical realm of eternal pleasure: rivers of water, milk, wine, and honey; lush gardens; palaces; abundant food; and the company of heavenly maidens (houris). Islamic hell (Jahannam) is a physical realm of fire, boiling water, festering wounds, and unceasing torment, with specific punishments matched to specific sins.
Zoroastrian heaven (Garō-nmāna, "House of Song") is a realm of eternal light, joy, and communion with Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrian hell (Druj-ō-dəmāna, "House of the Lie") is a realm of permanent darkness, stench, putrid food, and suffering, with punishments specifically corresponding to sins committed in life. The Arda Viraz Namag describes these torments in vivid matching detail.
The Quran and hadith describe hell's punishments in graphic detail — specific tortures for specific sins. These match the Zoroastrian Arda Viraz Namag's descriptions of hell quite closely. Islamic images of hell (eating from the Zaqqum tree, drinking boiling fluid) are similar to Zoroastrian images of hell's torments.
The Bridge Over Hell — Islamic Pul-Sirat vs Zoroastrian Chinvat Bridge
Pul-Sirat (or al-Sirat al-Mustaqim in its eschatological sense): on the Day of Judgment, all souls must cross a bridge over the fire of hell. The bridge is described in hadith as thinner than a hair and sharper than a sword. The righteous cross it swiftly, while the wicked stumble and fall into hell below. (Sahih Muslim 195a)
Chinvat Bridge (Chinvato Peretu, "Bridge of the Separator"): after death, all souls must cross this bridge over hell. For the righteous, it widens to twelve leagues and is easy to cross; for the wicked, it narrows to a razor's edge and they fall into hell below. The bridge is guarded by the Yazata Mithra and his companions, who judge the soul before it crosses.
The Chinvat Bridge is one of the oldest parts of Zoroastrian belief, found in the earliest Zoroastrian hymns. The Islamic Sirat bridge appears in hadith, not the Quran. Both are a bridge over hell that the righteous cross easily and the wicked fall from. In Zoroastrianism, the bridge widens for the good and narrows like a razor for the bad. In Islam, the bridge is thinner than a hair and sharper than a sword. The idea is the same.
The Questioning of the Dead — Munkar & Nakir vs Mithra, Sraosha & Rashnu
After burial, the soul is questioned in the grave by two terrifying blue-black angels, Munkar and Nakir, who ask: "Who is your Lord? What is your religion? Who is your Prophet?" Correct answers lead to a peaceful, wide grave and a window to paradise; wrong answers result in the angel striking the soul with an iron hammer and the beginning of the azab al-qabr (torture of the grave). (Sahih Muslim 2870)
On the fourth day after death (dawn of the fourth day — Chinvat ceremony), the soul is met and questioned by three divine judges: Mithra (angel of covenants and truth), Sraosha (obedience/hearing), and Rashnu (justice/equity). Rashnu weighs the soul's good deeds against bad on a divine scale. The outcome determines whether the soul crosses the Chinvat Bridge to paradise or falls to hell.
Both have angels who question the soul right after death. In Islam, two angels (Munkar and Nakir) ask about religious identity in the grave. In Zoroastrianism, three divine beings judge the soul at the Chinvat Bridge. In both, correct answers lead to peace and paradise, and wrong answers start the punishment immediately.
Prayers and Intercessions for the Dead — Hadiyyat al-Thawab and Muktad Ceremonies
While every soul will be judged on its own deeds, Islamic tradition holds that living family members and friends can benefit the dead through prayer (du'a), Quran recitation, sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity on the deceased's behalf), and hadiyyat al-thawab (gifting spiritual merit). Special prayers on the 3rd, 7th, 40th days and the anniversary after death are widely practised.
Zoroastrian tradition holds that the souls of the dead return during the ten-day Muktad period (also called Frawardigan). Living relatives perform ceremonies, light fires and incense, and recite specific prayers (Afrinagan) to comfort and benefit the souls. These prayers and good deeds performed in the name of the deceased are believed to ease their afterlife conditions.
Both say that each person is judged by their own deeds, but both also say that living family members can help the dead through prayers and rituals. This mix of personal accountability and help-from-family is a shared feature of both faiths.
Further Eschatological Parallels — Mahdi/Saoshyant, Barzakh/Burzaxw, Houris/Daena, A'raf/Hamistagan
Key Islamic eschatological concepts include:
- Al-Mahdi — the awaited saviour who will come in the last days to restore justice
- Barzakh — the intermediate state between death and resurrection
- Houris — beautiful heavenly maidens who greet the souls of righteous men in paradise
- Sidrat al-Muntaha — the lote tree at the boundary of the seventh heaven, beyond which none may pass
- Al-A'raf — a borderland between paradise and hell for souls whose deeds are exactly balanced (Quran 7:46–49)
Corresponding Zoroastrian eschatological concepts:
- Saoshyants — three saviour figures who will appear in the last days to resurrect the dead and bring about final renovation
- Burzaxw (Hamistagan) — the intermediate state between death and final judgment
- Daena — a beautiful maiden (or hag, for the wicked) who meets the soul at the Chinvat Bridge and represents the soul's own accumulated deeds
- Humaya tree — a sacred tree at the boundary of the heavens, beyond which the divine light is
- Hamistagan — a middle abode for souls whose good and bad deeds are equal, neither in paradise nor hell
The match between these end-times ideas is remarkable. The saviour figure (Mahdi / Saoshyant) plays the same role: a future leader who brings the final age of justice. The borderland (A'raf / Hamistagan) solves the same problem: where do souls go whose good and bad deeds are equal? The heavenly maiden (Houris / Daena) and the boundary tree (Sidra / Humaya) are specific images found in both faiths but not in Judaism or Christianity of the time.
The intermediate state (barzakh / burzaxw) is especially telling: the Quranic word barzakh is itself a Persian loanword. Its Zoroastrian cousin burzaxw describes the same place between death and final judgment.